1. Overview
At the dawn of the twentieth century a new style and approach was required to reflect the exciting, industrially developed world that had emerged. The machine was a crucial focal point of Modernist ideology and artists and designers such as Filippo Marinetti and the Futurists embraced technology. The work they produced reflected the power and beauty of the machine. This focus on industry drew attention to the inhabitants of modern cities: the proletariat and the working man. Subsequently political and social issues became important to Modernists and their pursuit of a utopian society. Thus emotive work was produced by artists such as the expressionist group De Brüke. The movement accelerated and intensified after the devastation of World War One, when the horrific waste of life made it apparent the traditions and ideologies of past centuries were no longer appropriate. The Modernists strove for truth and honesty in their work: emphasis rested on function and suitable use of materials, rather than form and decoration. A beautiful design would be created without unnecessary, impure embellishment. Hence in Ornamentation and Crime, Adolf Loos encouraged a principle of minimal ornamentation and an adoption of a reduced and simplistic aesthetic (Loos, 1908, eds Lees-Maffei & Houze, 2010 p. 98). This was achieved by abstraction, geometric shapes, primary colours and use of photographs. A visual language was created which was all inclusive, crossing class boundaries thus mirroring the socialist politics of the time which many Modernists aligned themselves with. There was a belief in unity and harmony, that Modernist principles should permeate all aspects of art and design with a sense of equality, no medium assuming greater importance.
Modernism had no definitive start or completion dates. It was a complex period of overlapping ideas and smaller movements which spanned the majority of the century. The principles above originate from Modernism’s initial stages; these ideas were carried forward and regenerated as artists continued to respond to the turbulent political and cultural changes of the century. Therefore Modernism can be classified as an umbrella term for a number of key movements: Cubism, Expressionism, Futurism, Constructivism, Art Deco, Dadaism and Surrealism. All of these were responding to the same ideas and reacting to the world around them. Consequently they have a shared revolutionary spirit; resulting in design which is forward thinking and often controversial. The diversity of aesthetic demonstrates the true originality of the opening phase. The ideas generated were synthesised and pulled closer together in order to fulfil a Modernist aim of internationalism and creating a common style which became more apparent as the century progressed.
2. Visual Examples (below)
Figure 1 is a woodcut by Käthe Kollwitz and is an example of German expressionism. It conforms to Modernism through its communication of social issues in the early twentieth century. The strong, harshly carved lines create an emotive illustration which honestly reflects the suffering of ordinary people. The truthful representation of modern life opposes the beauty and glamour of the wealthier classes, a previous focus of the Art Nouveau style. The simple, striking black and white contrast along with the minimal decoration focuses all the attention on the emotional message.
Figure 2 by Hannah Höch is a photomontage, a popular Modernist technique. Photographs were commonly used in the illustrations of the movement. This was perhaps due to the enthusiasm for technology or their ability to truthfully portray the subject. The juxtaposition of photographic material was used by Dadaists to demonstrate their political beliefs, particularly their opposition to World War One. The chaotic composition expresses the turmoil of the situation.
The simplicity of Figure 3, with the majority of the poster left plain, means it follows a critical Modernist design principle of minimal ornamentation. In addition Kauffer has abstracted the shape of the birds to a basic geometric form, emphasised further by the overlapping of rectangles and triangles. From this representation of the birds similarities can easily be drawn to machines and airplanes. The use of illustration in this commercial format also aligns itself with the movement’s determination to make art and design assume greater importance and availability.
Figure 4 employs Modernist theories of simplicity. Through using geometric shapes an uncomplicated striking visual language is created. From which the viewer can clearly understand the Bolshevik determination to win the Russian civil war. The intensity and violence of the conflict can be felt powerfully through the portrayal of the red wedge piercing the white disc. In addition this poster is supporting a socialist cause and appealing to the poorest classes. Its message is so apparent that illiteracy would not restrict one in understanding it.
Figure 5 by Fernand Léger was created for an anti-war book, therefore it reflects the revolutionary spirit of Modernism. He has employed cubist techniques of different perspectives and abstraction to create a geometric representation of modern city life. Resulting in an exciting, energetic and exuberant portrayal of this new world. The hand drawn style adds to the expression and emotions of the image, while also honestly reflecting the method and materials used to construct the work.
3. Quotes and Citations
It is understood that Modernism cannot be easily formed into a simple, coherent definition. ‘Modernism was not conceived as a style, but was a loose collection of ideas. It was a term that covered a range of movements and styles in many countries...’ (Wilk, 2006 p.14). However there were significant common principles and ideas, one being their passion for the machine. Modernist Maholy-Nagy wrote in 1922 of the importance of technology on the modern world. ‘The reality of our century is technology: the invention, construction, and maintenance of machines. To be a user of machines is to be the spirit of this century.’ (Maholy-Nagy in Butler, 2010 p. 27). Machinery was a central point from which other ideas developed, this is also supported by Moholy-Nagy who continues ‘Everyone is equal before the machine ... there is ... no class-consciousness’ (Maholy-Nagy in Butler, 2010 p. 28). This identifies Modernists’ belief in socialism, which is also portrayed in Figure 1 and 4. However socialism was not just a context in which Modernism existed but designers also borrowed the essence of its ideology. Aynsley comments on their desire for ‘a universal language that would transcend differences of culture and class.’ (Aynsley, 2001 p. 40). This is supported by Wilk who argues that artists saw it as their duty to ‘transform society’ (Wilk, 2006 p.14).
An important aspect of the new Modernist visual language was abstraction. This as Greenhalgh reflects, relates to the principles of truth and purity (Greenhalgh, 1990, eds Lee-Maffei & Houze, 2010 p.94). This purer intention became particularly relevant after World War One. ‘...the traumas of war were crucial for inciting Modernism’s subsequent utopianism...’ (Pevsner in Wilk, 2006 p.17). It was the devastation of the war which led to Dada ‘Rejecting all tradition’ (Meggs & Purvis 2006 p.256). This abandonment of constraint, Meggs and Purvis state ‘they sought complete freedom’, (Meggs & Purvis 2006 p.256) resulted in work which was extremely experimental as shown through Figure 2. The visual examples which were produced in 1919 show this revolutionary approach which is associated with Modernism.
4. Critical Analysis
Modernism began with a very radical and original approach to art and design. As the movement progressed there was a desire to standardise their visual language. This is supported by Aynsley: ‘by the mid-1920s a move to rationalize this design inventiveness occurred...’ (Aynsley, 2001 p.70). As a result Wilk explains ‘it was gradually stripped of its previous social and political beliefs...’ (Wilk, 2006 p.14). Subsequently styles such as Art Deco emerged which were primarily used for commercial purposes. Images were required to be beautiful, seductive and portray luxury, shown through the Art Deco fashion magazines and posters of the 1920s and 1930s (Appendix below). Thus this style of Modernism did not fulfil all the principles of the movement. Nevertheless Heller and Chwast describe it as ‘... an immediately identifiable graphic code- an amazingly popular international style...’ (Heller & Chwast, 2008 p.55). However Aynsley says ‘... the historicism, eclecticism and apparent superficiality of Art Deco were frowned upon by modernists for both aesthetic and political reasons.’ (Aynsley, 2001 p.82). Figure 2 and 4 were produced for revolutionary groups with leftish political views, while ‘Art Deco had no partisan underpinning; it was just an incredibly alluring style.’ (Heller & Chwast, 2008 p.62). This can be demonstrated by some of the propaganda produced for the Nazi party in the 1930s (Appendix below). Although labelling Modernist art as degenerate and claiming ‘....its experimentalism [was] merely ‘restless’....’ (Hitler in Butler, 2010 p.87) there are some minor Modernist aesthetic qualities such as abstraction and photomontage, which shows even Hitler could not deny that Modernism produced a popular and appealing way of presenting ideas. This demonstrates that Modernist aesthetic qualities could be used for purposes far from their initial political allegiances. This is supported by Heller and Chwast: ‘Art Deco... served propagandists of warring political parties on both sides of the ideological divide.’ (Heller & Chwast, 2008 p.62). Therefore if as Aynsley describes when ‘removed from its original context, the style at times became a set of borrowed mannerisms...’ (Aynsley, 2001 p.41) should this variation of the movement be considered as Modernism? It is unfair to dismiss this more moderate style as its popularity was clearly demonstrated.
However through comparing Figure 2 and 3, it is apparent the former is a revolutionary design, overtly political, which presents its message in a bold, striking manner. While the latter is much sleeker and design conscious. That is not to say that both of these aspects cannot be fulfilled in one image, because Figure 3 conforms to both aesthetic and political principles. However many Modernist works could not achieve all the numerous principles established at the movement’s inception at once. Perhaps this was because it was not appropriate for the purpose of the piece and this a crucial consideration particularly for design. It was always not possible to appeal to both the movement’s radical innovators and the whole of society. In order to achieve complete saturation of the style across the wide scope of art there must have been variations in its intensity to appeal to everyone.
Visual Examples
Figure 1 Käthe Kollwitz, Die Lebenden dem Toten, 1919. p.51
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Figure 2 Hannah Höch, Cut with the Kitchen Knife (through the last Beer-swilling Cultural Epoch of the Weimar Republic), 1919. Photomontage. p.75
Aynsley, J. (2001) A Century of Graphic Design: Graphic Design Pioneers of the 20th Century. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd.
Figure 3 E. Mcknight Kauffer, Soaring to Success! Daily Herald - the Early Bird, 1919. Poster. p.48
Aynsley, J. (2001) A Century of Graphic Design: Graphic Design Pioneers of the 20th Century. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd.
Figure 4 El Lissitzky, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, 1919/1920. Lithograph Poster
WikiPaintings: Encyclopedia of Painting [online] [Accessed 7 January 2012, 19:00] Available < http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/el-lissitzky/beat-the-whites-with-the-red-wedge-1920# >
Figure 5 Fernand Léger, Author: Cendrar, B. (1919) La fin du Monde, Filmé par l’Ange N.-D. Paris: Editions de la Sirène.
Reed Digital Collections: Artists’ Books [online] [Accessed 4 January 2012, 10:05] Available <http://cdm.reed.edu/cdm4/artbooks/cendrars_leger.php>
Appendix
Nazi Posters:
Nazi poster 1 (1933) [online image].
Available from
<http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm> [Accessed 6 January, 2012 15:50]
Nazi poster 2 (c. mid- 1930s) [online image]. Available from
<http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm> [Accessed 6 January, 2012 15:50]
Nazi poster 3 (1934) [online image].
Available from
<http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm> [Accessed 6 January, 2012 15:50]
Nazi Poster 4 - Und Du? (1929) p.213
Ludwig Hohlwein
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Art Deco:
Art Deco 1 - Cover Illustration Vogue (1928)
p.53
Eduard Garcia Benito
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Witold Gordon
Derrick, R. and Muir, R. (eds) (2009) Vogue Covers: On Fashion’s Front Page. London: Little, Brown
Art Deco 3 - Khasana Counter Display
(c.1930) Artist Unknown, p.91
Heller, S. and Fili, L. (1998) British Modern: Graphic Design Between the Wars. San Francisco: Chronicle Books
Art Deco 4 - Paris Openings Number (21 September 1927) Eduardo Benito, p. 51
Derrick, R. and Muir, R. (eds) (2009)
Vogue Covers: On Fashion’s Front Page. London: Little, Brown
Bibliography
Books
Aynsley, J. (2001) A Century of Graphic Design: Graphic Design Pioneers of the 20th Century. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd.
Butler, C. (2010) Modernism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press
Greenhalgh, P. (1990) Introduction to Modernism in Design in G. Lees-Maffei and R. Houze (eds)(2010) The Designer History Reader. Oxford/ New York: Berg p.91-97
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Loos, A. (1908) Ornamentation and Crime in G. Lees-Maffei and R. Houze (eds) (2010) The Designer History Reader. Oxford/ New York: Berg p. 98-100
Meggs, P. B. and Purvis, A.W. (2006) Meggs’ History of Graphic Design: Fourth Edition. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wilk, C. (2006) Introduction: What is Modernism? in C. Wilk (ed). Modernism 1914 - 1939: Designing a New World. London: V&A Publications p.11-21
Visual Examples
Books
Aynsley, J. (2001) A Century of Graphic Design: Graphic Design Pioneers of the 20th Century. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd.
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Websites
Reed Digital Collections: Artists’ Books [online] [Accessed 4 January 2012, 10:05] Available from World Wide Web <http://cdm.reed.edu/cdm4/artbooks/cendrars_leger.php>
WikiPaintings: Encyclopedia of Painting [online] [Accessed 7 January 2012, 19:00] Available from World Wide Web < http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/el-lissitzky/beat-the-whites-with-the-red-wedge-1920# >
Appendices
Books
Derrick, R. and Muir, R. (eds) (2009) Vogue Covers: On Fashion’s Front Page. London: Little, Brown
Heller, S. and Fili, L. (1998) British Modern: Graphic Design Between the Wars. San Francisco: Chronicle Books
Heller, S. and Chwast S. (2008) Illustration: A Visual History. New York: Abrams
Websites
German Propaganda Archive: Nazi Posters: 1933-1945 (2001) [online] [Accessed 6 January 2012, 15:50]
Available from World Wide Web <http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm>
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